Babies do not come with an instruction manual when they are born. Others can give advice, but the nitty-gritty of parenting always boils down to the choices of the parents. It can be a lot of pressure, especially since family life makes such a huge impact on quality of life, even as adults. Should you be strict or lenient? Is there such a thing as being too involved in your children’s lives? It is not just parents who concern themselves with these questions. Fortunately, psychologists have long been interested in how parenting styles and development are linked.
The Different Parenting Styles and Development Outcomes
Parenting style refers to the strategies parents tend to use with their children. These can include attitudes and responses that make up the emotional environment children grow up in. This is significant because there is growing evidence that a person’s behaviors and actions can be shaped by the parenting style experienced.1
For example, parents who are too lax when it comes to rules may raise children with low achievements in academics. This is because these children do not have any expectations to meet.2 In my experience as a child psychologist, I can attest that parental involvement is crucial to a child’s development and progress.
Each parent is different, and there are as many parenting styles as there are families. However, there are four parenting styles recognized in psychology. One of the pioneers of this particular subject is a developmental psychologist named Diana Baumrind. In the 1960s, she studied more than 100 children by observing them and conducting interviews. She identified three major patterns in parenting and named them authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive3 Later on, Stanford researchers Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin added another parenting style, which is called neglectful or uninvolved.4
1. Authoritative Parenting
In authoritative parenting, there are clear rules that their children are expected to follow. However, they do not simply reinforce these rules. The lines of communication between parent and child are open, and the parents are responsive to what their children feel or think. If the children do something wrong or fall short of expectations, the consequences are fair. In addition, the response of the parents can still be characterized as nurturing and forgiving.5
A concrete example of authoritative parenting is the use of screen time. The use of gadgets is not banned outright. Instead, authoritative parents will place a limit on them. These parents will likely take into consideration the age and needs of their children. There is also a tendency for authoritative parents to use positive reinforcement, which uses rewards instead of punishments. In this instance, children may receive more screen time if they fulfill their parents’ expectations.
Off the bat, many experts believe that authoritarian parenting is the ideal situation in a parent-child relationship.6 There is plenty of research that indicates that authoritative parenting results in children who are generally happy and successful. In fact, there is one study that shows children who were raised by authoritative parents have better self-esteem, life satisfaction, and problem-solving skills.7
2. Authoritarian Parenting
In contrast, authoritarian parenting puts greater emphasis on rules and obedience. The parents’ standards are high and there is punishment if these standards are not met. In general, communication is one-way where the child is expected to accept what the parents say. Compared to authoritative parenting, authoritarian parents display less warmth and are less nurturing towards their children.
This parenting style is linked to many negative outcomes, including low self-esteem and social difficulties. Children raised in this environment tend to be rule-followers, but they may lack self-discipline because they are used to simply obeying the rules. In a study conducted in Japan, the link between parenting styles and behavioral issues was explored. It was noted that children raised in this environment tend to have a negative view of the world and thus, display more aggressive behaviors toward others.8
An authoritarian approach may be effective in certain situations. For instance, rules about safety are non-negotiable and should be implemented strictly for the child’s benefit. However, its overuse can have negative consequences on the child’s development.
3. Permissive Parenting
Permissive parents appear to be warm, loving, and nurturing. However, they do not set any rules or expectations for their children. The way I would put it is that permissive parents see their children as friends and at par with them in the relationship. While there are open lines of communication, the children are often left to make choices independently without fear of any consequences. Essentially, the parents do not act like authority figures.
At first glance, it might seem like permissive parenting prioritizes the relationship between the parent and child. However, children are still developing beings and require guidance in order to learn and set boundaries. For example, permissive parents may allow their children to choose what they want to eat. A child is more likely to pick a sugary treat over something healthy, like broccoli. In a study conducted to see the connection between parenting styles and eating habits, it was discovered that if the parent is too indulgent when it comes to eating habits, then the child’s risk for unhealthy behaviors and health issues increases.9
Excessive freedom results in children with good self-esteem and social skills. However, their experience with lack of rules may make them demanding, impulsive, and unable to self-regulate.10
4. Neglectful Parenting
Also known as uninvolved parenting, this particular style of parenting takes on a hands-off approach. The children are given plenty of freedom to make decisions for themselves. Although the child’s basic needs, such as food and shelter, are met, parents do not have any emotional investments in the relationship. There is little communication and discipline involved. From the point of view of the child, their parent is distant and displays no affection towards them. Their parents also do not know much about what is going on in their lives.
It is important to note that neglectful parenting is not always intentional. For example, parents with mental health conditions or substance abuse problems may not have the capacity to meet a child’s needs.
Some experts believe that when considering parenting styles and development, neglectful parenting has the worst outcomes.11 Children raised in this type of environment display independence and resilience because they had to basically, raise themselves. These are traits born out of necessity. However, there are studies show that there is an increased risk of academic failures, substance abuse, and delinquency.12
Parenting Styles and Development Areas
Knowing the different parenting styles is important because how children are raised impacts them their whole lives. It can influence a range of behaviors and emotions. Parents should consider the role of parenting styles and development areas to find the right strategies that will support the growth and development of their children.
Concepts like self-esteem, academic success, and future relationships are just some of these aspects. Mental health is also of particular note. Children with authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful parents are more likely to experience mental issues like anxiety and depression.13
Another area of development affected by parenting styles is social relationships. In fact, there is research that links parenting styles with abuse. In an article in Psychology Today, the author notes that there is research that links parental relationships with the risk of physical abuse. He also delves into the connections between parenting styles and emotional abuse. Emotional abuse is the most common form of abuse and is linked with an increased risk of depression and self-harm.
Conclusion: Parenting Styles and Development Should Support the Child
No one expects a parent to get all the parenting decisions right every time. However, each parent should know that the way they interact and guide their children has a hand in shaping the morals and behaviors of the child even when they reach adulthood.
It is important to consider that parenting styles are only one factor, albeit an influential one, in the way children turn out. Children raised in the same environments can have very different outcomes. Culture, the child’s personality, and other social influences can all play roles in the way the child grows up.
While there is no set formula for raising a child, knowing more about parenting styles can help you be a more involved, nurturing parent. Understanding the different parenting styles can help parents evaluate the way they approach raising their children. If a child is going through behavior or emotional issues, it might be helpful to evaluate the parenting style. Often, parenting styles are passed down from one generation to the next. But, the methods to raise children are not set in stone and can be modified, or changed entirely, to benefit the family.
Cited Sources
- Sanvictores T, Mendez MD. Types of Parenting Styles and Effects on Children. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568743/ ↩︎
- Masud S, Mufarrih SH, Qureshi NQ, Khan F, Khan S, Khan MN. Academic performance in adolescent students: the role of parenting styles and socio-demographic factors – a cross sectional study from peshawar, pakistan. Front Psychol. 2019;10:2497. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02497 ↩︎
- Baumrind D. Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genet Psychol Monogr. 1967;75(1):43-88. ↩︎
- Louis JP. The Young Parenting Inventory (YPI-R3), and the Baumrind, Maccoby and Martin parenting model: Finding common ground. Children. 2022;9(2):159. doi:10.3390/children9020159 ↩︎
- American Psychological Association. Parenting Styles. 2017. ↩︎
- Kuppens S, Ceulemans E. Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept. J Child Fam Stud. 2019;28(1):168-181. doi: 10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x. Epub 2018 Sep 18. PMID: 30679898; PMCID: PMC6323136. ↩︎
- Kuppens, S., Ceulemans, E. Parenting Styles: A Closer Look at a Well-Known Concept. J Child Fam Stud 28, 168–181 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x ↩︎
- Hosokawa R, Katsura T. Role of Parenting Style in Children’s Behavioral Problems through the Transition from Preschool to Elementary School According to Gender in Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(1):21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16010021 ↩︎
- Lopez NV, Schembre S, Belcher BR, O’Connor S, Maher JP, Arbel R, Margolin G, Dunton GF. Parenting styles, food-related parenting practices, and children’s healthy eating: A mediation analysis to examine relationships between parenting and child diet. Appetite. 2018 Sep 1;128:205-213. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2018.06.021. Epub 2018 Jun 18. PMID: 29920321; PMCID: PMC7529118. ↩︎
- Leeman RF, Patock-Peckham JA, Hoff RA, Krishnan-Sarin S, Steinberg MA, Rugle LJ, Potenza MN. Perceived parental permissiveness toward gambling and risky behaviors in adolescents. J Behav Addict. 2014 Jun;3(2):115-23. ↩︎
- Garcia OF, Serra E. Raising Children with Poor School Performance: Parenting Styles and Short- and Long-Term Consequences for Adolescent and Adult Development. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019 Mar 27;16(7):1089. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16071089. PMID: 30934673; PMCID: PMC6480465. ↩︎
- Hoskins DH. Consequences of Parenting on Adolescent Outcomes. Societies. 2014; 4(3):506-531. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc4030506 ↩︎
- Power TG. Parenting dimensions and styles: a brief history and recommendations for future research. Child Obes. 2013;9 Suppl(Suppl 1):S14–S21. doi:10.1089/chi.2013.0034 ↩︎